专八语言学

英语专业八级 语言学 总结 来源： 谢萌Fighting的日志

一、语言和语言学

1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language

任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系

二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成

创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造

移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点

2、语言的功能（不是很重要）

信息功能 informative

人际功能 interpersonal

施为功能 performative

感情功能 emotive function

寒暄功能 phatic communication

娱乐功能 recreational function

元语言功能 metalingual function

3、语言学主要分支

语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音

音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列

形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则

句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则

语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义

语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义

4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics

心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics

5 语言学中的重要区别

规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的

描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的

共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言

历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律

语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体

言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言

语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)

能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备

运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用

二、语音学

1、语音学分支

发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生

声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性

听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知

2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的

三、音位学

1、最小对立体minimal pairs

2、音位 phoneme

3 音位变体 allophones

4 互补分布 complementary distribution

5 自由变体 free variation

6 区别特征 distinctive features

7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature

音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation

四 形态学

1 词的构成

语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme

Root 词根 词缀affix 词干stem

屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix

2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper

新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation

首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit

类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed

外来词 borrowing

五 句法学

1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect

一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment

2 结构主义学派the structure approach

组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起

聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起

结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)

3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis

指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分

4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions

向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man

离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf

5 生成学派the generative approach

深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level

表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage

6 功能学派the functional approach

主位与述位 theme and rheme

主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，

述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about

7 交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD

指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度

六、语义学

1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning

概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义

内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物

社会意义

情感意义 affective meaning

反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义

搭配意义 collocative meaning

主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义

2 指称论 referential theory

指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论

3 语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出

Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements

能指thought指概念concept

所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience

涵义sense语言形式的意义

4 主要涵义关系

○同义关系synonymy

地域同义词dialectal synonymy

风格同义词 stylistic synonyms

感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬

○反义关系antonymy

等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold

互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive

反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student

○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合

补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy

一词多义 polysemy

七、语用学

1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin

认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作

○施为句和叙事句performative and constative

施为句：实施某种行为。

叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。

○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act

言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思

言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为

言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果

2 会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature

格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice

○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则

○ 四个准则four categories of maxims

数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则

3 后格赖斯时期的发展

○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance

○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles

由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出

八 现代语言学理论和流派

1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”

2 布拉格学派Prague School

贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能

突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学

突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念

4 伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学

创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性

韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象

5 美国结构主义American Structuralism

共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.

○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

语言相对论-语言决定论

○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物

6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar

乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.

认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device

专八人文知识：语言学部分精选试题

1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?

A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic

C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary

2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language?

A. Symbolic B. Dual C. Productive D. Arbitrary

3.What is the most important function of language?

A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual

4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?

A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous

5.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user s internalized knowledge of his language?

A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue

6.The function of the sentence \"A nice day, isn t it?\" is .

A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative

7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .

A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech

B. the perception of sounds

C. the combination of sounds

D. the production of sounds

8.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .

A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream

C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips

9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription?

A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics

10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language?

A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics

11.Minimal pairs are used to .

A. find the distinctive features of a language

B. find the phonemes of a language

C. compare two words

D. find the allophones of language

12.Usually, suprasegmental features include,length and pitch.

A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress

13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable?

A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak

14.Which is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content?

A. Word B. Morpheme C. Allomorph D. Root

15.Which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed?

A. Morphology B. Syntax C. Phonology D. Semantics

16.Lexeme is .

A. a physically definable unit

B. the common factor underlying a set of forms

C. a grammatical unit

D. an indefinable unit

17.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme ?

A. [s] B. [iz] C. [ai] D. [is]

18.All words contain a .

A. root morpheme B. bound morpheme C. prefix D. suffix

19.The relationship between \"fruit\" and \"apple\" is

A. homonymy B. hyponymy C. polysemy D. synonymy

20.The part of the grammar that represents a speaker s knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called .

A. lexicon B. morphology C. syntax D. semantics

21.Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?

A. gender B. number C. case D. voice

22.The pair of words \"lend\" and \"borrow\" are

A. gradable opposites B. converse opposites C. co-hyponyms D. synonyms

23.\"Big\" and \"Small\" are a pair of opposites.

A. complementary B. gradable C. complete D. converse

24.According to C. Morris and R. Carnap, which is studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters?

A. syntax B. semantics C. pragmatics D. sociolinguistics

25.There are deixis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.

A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

26.In the following conversation:

- Beirut is in Peru, isn t it?

- And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.

The second person violates the

A. Quantity Maxim B. Quality Maxim C. Relation Maxim D. Manner Maxim

27.The maxim of requires that a participant s contribution be relevant to the conversation.

A. quantity B. quality C. manner D. relation