Tourism product development and product diversification in destinations(2015.03.23)

ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectTourismManagementjournalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/tourmanTourismproductdevelopmentandproductdiversificationindestinationsAbdelatiM.Benur,BillBramwell*SheffieldHallamUniversity,HowardStreet,Sheffield,S11WB,UKhighlights󰀁Theassemblyofprimarytourismproductsvariesbetweendestinations.󰀁Conceptualframeworksofdestinationproductdevelopmentanddiversification.󰀁Thereareniche,mass,integrativeandparalleldestinationproductfeatures.󰀁Spatialandthematicproductlinksandsynergiesoftendevelopindestinations.󰀁Atypologyofdestinationproductintensificationanddiversificationoptions.articleinfoArticlehistory:Received27October2014Accepted5February2015AvailableonlineKeywords:PrimarytourismproductsTourismdestinationsTourismdevelopmentProductdiversificationMasstourismNichetourismTourismclustersProductassemblyabstractPrimarytourismproductsarekeydrawcardswhichattracttouriststoparticulardestinations.Thediversification,intensificationandlinkageoftheseproductscanbecrucialforthecompetitivenessandsustainabledevelopmentofdestinations.Yetthesediversefeaturesandrelationshipsofprimarytourismproductsindestinationsareneglectedinexistingresearch.Thispaperdevelopstwoconceptualframeworkswhichassistwithanalyzingandunderstandingthefeatures,relationshipsandstrategicoptionsassociatedwithtourismproductdevelopment,concentration,diversificationandintensificationindestinations.Tourismproductfeaturesandoptionsconsideredhereincludethedevelopmentofnicheandmasstourismproducts,parallelandintegrativediversification,andthematicandspatialsynergiesbetweenproducts.Atypologyofstrategicoptionsfortourismproductdevelopmentandassemblyindestinationsispresentedwhichisbasedonthedegreeofintensificationandofconcentrationanddiversificationoftourismproducts.©2015ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.1.IntroductionDestinationsdependontheirprimarytourismproductsaskeypullfactorsmotivatingtouriststovisitthem.Thepaper'sanalysisfocusesonprimarytourismproductsratherthanonproductswhicharelesslikelytoprovideasubstantialtouristdrawtospecificdestinations,suchasaccommodation,foodservicesandtrans-portation(Jansen-Verbeke,1986).Theattractionofdestinationsfortouristsnormallydependsonthedestinations'physical,environ-mentalandsocio-culturalcharacteristicsorattributesasprimarytourismproducts(Jafari,1982).Thephysicalandenvironmentalattributesincludetheclimaticconditions,landscapeandecology,*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:þ4407718304953.E-mailaddresses:ambayada@gmail.com(A.M.Benur),w.m.bramwell@shu.ac.uk(B.Bramwell).http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.02.0050261-5177/©2015ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.andthesocio-culturalattributesincludethehistory,politics,art,economicactivities,waysoflife,monuments,individualbuildingsandbuiltenvironment.Theyarelegaciesindestinationsofphysicalfeaturesandenvironment,andalsoofsociety'ssocio-economicandculturalhistory,andtheyarealsointer-related.Variousactivitiescanbeassociatedwiththesecharacteristics,suchaspackagingandpromotionbythetourismindustry,whichmakethemmoreavailabletotouristsandthusmorereadilyconsumedbythem.Touristscanhaveexpectationsabouttheexperiencestheywanttogainconnectedwiththelegacyofenvironmentalandsocio-culturalcharacteristicsofspecificdestinations.Thetourismindustryoftenusestheenvironmentalandsocio-culturalattributesindestina-tionsduetotheiravailabilityandbecauseofestablishedtouristexpectations,andtherecanbearangeofsuchattributesthatmightbedevelopedandpromotedasprimarytourismproducts.Atothertimes,thetourismindustryalsocreatesnewtourismproductsina214A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

destinationwhicharenotassociatedwiththeplace'sspecificlegacies.Thedevelopmentofprimarytourismproductsindestinationsiscomplexduetothemanyelementsassociatedwiththeseproducts.Smith(1994)arguesthatprimarytourismproductscompriseacomplexamalgamofelements,suchasphysicalplant(includingnaturalfeaturesandweather),theinputofservices,hospitality,choicesfortourists,touristinvolvementinthedeliveryofservices,andalsoexperiences.Amongtheseelementssomearemoretangibleandothersaremoreintangible.Themoreintangibleele-ments,forexample,includetherepresentationsandimagesofprimarytourismproducts,whichthetourismindustryorothercommunicationchannelsmaypromote,aswellastheculturalandsymbolicmeaningstouristsassociatewiththeseproducts(Morgan,2014;Murphy,Pritchard,&Smith,2000).Smith(1994,p.582;Xu,2010)alsocontendsthat“tourismproductsarefundamentallyex-periences”,withexperiencesseenascentraltotouristchoiceandsatisfaction(Smith,1994,p.582;Xu,2010).Considerationneedstobegiventobothmoretangibleandmoreintangibleaspectsofprimarytourismproductsindestinations,togetherwithinter-connectionsbetweenthem.Afurthercomplicationisthatdesti-nationsoftendevelopwithseveralprimarytourismproducts,andamongthemthereareusuallycomplexrelationships,synergiesandtensions.Thepaper'sassessmentofprimarytourismproductsindestinationsrecognizesthesecomplexitiesforindividualproductsandtheircombinationswithindestinations.Theanalysisconsidersthedevelopmentofprimarytourismproductsindestinations,notablytheirconcentrationanddiversi-fication.Theelementsandprocessesassociatedwithproductconcentrationanddiversificationarehighlyimportantfortouristdestinationdevelopment.Therearemanyreasonsfortheirimportance,andthuswhyweneedafullerandmoreconceptually-informedunderstandingofthem.Inparticular,thereisaneedfordestinationstodeveloptheirprimarytourismproductsappropri-ately,suchasbyensuringthereisasufficientnumberanddiversityoftheseproducts,theyhavecoherence,andtherearesynergiesandlinkagesbetweenthem(Farmaki,2012;Jansen-Verbeke,1986;Lawton&Weaver,2006).Destinationsrequireasuitablenumberandmixofsuchproducts,andalsomutuallybeneficialandcoop-erativerelationshipsbetweenthem,sothattheycanmeetsuchstrategicobjectivesashavingprofitableproductsandworkingto-wardsustainabledevelopmentandcompetitiveadvantage.Thus,destinationshavefundamentalstrategicoptionsfortheirtourismproductdiversity,thatiswhetherthereisproductconcentrationordiversification,andfortheirtourismproductintensification,thatiswhethertheydevelopnicheormasstourismproductsaccordingtothedesiredmarketsizeandphysicalscaleofdevelopment.Yetthesedestinationproductfeaturesareoftendeterminedbyunco-ordinatedindividualmarket-baseddecisionsratherthanbycoor-dinateddestination-levelpoliciesandmarketinterventions.Destinationsoftenfaceparticularlydifficultchoicesaroundtourismproductdiversity.Forexample,bothatourismproductdiversitystrategy,andalternativelyastrategyofconcentratingonjustoneorafewproducts,havepotentialadvantagesfordestina-tioncompetitivenessandsustainability.First,inthecaseoftourismproductdiversity,thiscanenhancedestinationcompetitivenessbyofferingvariedexperiencesandactivities,greaterpotentialforcustomizedproductsthatmeettourists'individualneedsandinterests,andenhancedflexibilityinresponsetochangingtouristtastesanddemand.Diversetourismproductscanalsobelinkedthroughsynergisticrelationshipsandcooperativearrangements,suchasbycreatingthematiclinkages,andbysecuringimprovedcoordinationandsharedcoststhroughjointmarketing.Suchlinkagescanpackagedestinationattractionstogether,therebyincreasingtouristchoiceandalsoofferingefficienciesandeconomiesforindividualattractions(Bramwell,2004a;Brunori&Rossi,2000;Farmaki,2012;Nordin,2003).Productdiversificationcanalsoencourage“alternative”productsthatpotentiallyaremoresociallyandenvironmentallysustainablefordestinations,suchasbecausetheyencourageappreciationofadestination'sspecialcharacter,involvebusinessesthatarelocally-owned,orbecausetheproductsaresmall-scaleintermsoftour-istnumbersandinfrastructurerequirements(Bramwell,2004a;Brunori&Rossi,2000;Nordin,2003).Second,inthecaseofproductconcentrationindestinations,basedononlyoneorafewtourismproducts,thenthiscanalsohavesomeadvantagesforcompetitivenessandsustainabledevel-opment.Suchdestinationsmaysucceedinestablishingacoherentimageandreputationthatappealstomanytouristswithinterestsinthetourismproducts'specificfeaturesandexperiences.Insuchcontextstourismbusinessesmightalsobenefitfromspecializationaswellasfromtheiraccumulatedexpertiseinsatisfyingthewell-understoodrequirementsofaspecifictouristmarket.Theymightalsobenefitfromcooperationwithotherbusinesses,whichmaybeeasierastheyhavesomeclearsharedinterests.Iftheproductinsuchdestinationsappealstoamassmarketitmayhaveeconomicadvantagesintermsofeconomiesofscaleandthroughsharingtouristinfrastructureandfacilities(Bramwell,2004a;Fyall&Garrod,2005).Thus,insomecircumstancestourismproductcon-centrationcanencouragedestinationcompetitiveness,althoughinevitablytherearerisksinfocusingonlyononeorafewproducts.Thisdestinationstrategycanattimesalsohavecertainadvantagesforsustainabledevelopment.Thestrategy,forexample,isoftenevidentinmasstourismcoastalresorts,andtherecanbebenefitsfromconcentratingtourismpressureswithintheseresortsastheimpactsarelocalizedandthuscanbebettermanaged.Insuchways,bothtourismconcentrationanddiversificationhavepotentialadvantagesforbusinessprofitability,destinationcompetitivenessandsustainabledevelopment.Importantly,bothstrategiesalsohavepotentialdisadvantagesforcommercialviabilityandforsustainability,andthosedisadvantagescanbeverysubstantial.Itisnecessaryforpolicymakers,planners,businessesandcitizenstobeawareofsuchpotentialadvantagesanddisad-vantages,andtoconsiderthemcarefullyinthespecificcontextandcircumstancesofeachdestination.Beforesuchassessmentscanbemade,however,asoundappreciationisrequiredoftheelements,processesandlinkagesinvolvedinprimarytourismproductdevelopmentindestinations.Toassistwiththeseassessments,thepaperidentifiesandevaluatesseveralofthemostsignificantele-ments,processesandlinkages.Thepapermakesanewcontributionbyprovidingafullerunderstandingofthesecrucialissuesfordestinations,includingbydevelopingconceptualframeworkstoaidunderstanding.Thepapermeetsagapincurrentknowledgebecausethereisonlylimitedin-depthresearchfocusedonconceptualizingandanalyzingthemanyrelationshipsandissuesassociatedwithdestination-basedtourismproductconcentrationanddiversifica-tion.Muchofthelimitedamountofanalyticalresearchrelevanttothistopicdealswithitasonlyoneaspectofanotherbroadertheme,orlooksatonlyselectedaspectsofthetopic.DwyerandKim(2003)andRitchieandCrouch(2003),forexample,discusstheappealoftourismproductsasjustonefeatureoftherelativecompetitivenessofdestinations.Butler(1980)examinestourismproductdevelop-mentbutasonlyoneofseveralrelationshipsinhisconceptuali-zationofevolutionarydestinationlifecycles.SpecificthematicandspatiallinkagesbetweenattractionsindestinationsareevaluatedbyWeidenfeld,Butler,andWilliams(2010,2011),whoseethemasprovidingopportunitiesforthetourismsectorfrominnovationandincreasedcompetitiveness(Nordin,2003).Bramwell(2004a,2004b)examinesthepotentialbenefitsandcostsforsustainableA.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224215

developmentofdestinationsofferingoneorjustafewconcen-tratedmasstourismproducts,orofdevelopingseveraldiversifiednichetourismproducts,consideringthisforcoastaltourismcon-texts(Weaver,2000).Thepresentstudythusextendscurrentresearchthroughaconcertedanalysisofthemanydimensions,processes,linkagesanddevelopmentoptionsassociatedwithtourismproductconcentra-tionanddiversificationindestinations.Italsoconsiderstourismproductintensification,whichconcernswhetherproductscaterformassornichemarkets,andwhetherdevelopmentsandactivitiesarequantitativelylimitedorlarge-scale.Forsimplicity,thepaperfocusesmoreontherationalesfordifferentapproachestoproductconcentration,diversificationandintensification,andlessonwhyapproachescanhaveadverseconsequencesorfail.Theanalysisdevelopstwoconceptualframeworks.Theseframeworkssimplifythefeaturesandprocessesinordertomakethemmoremanageableandunderstandable,doingsothroughfocusingonkeyelements,connectionsandprocesses,andwiththosethenbeinganalyzedandexplainedinmoredetail(Williams,2009).Eachoftheframeworksprovidesasystematizedstructuretothinking,suchasbyidentifyingparticularlyimportantfeaturesandprocesses,andbygroupingtogetherrelatedideasandrelation-ships.Theyareheuristicdevices,therefore,thatcanassistre-searchersandpractitionerstodevelopcoherentpotentialexplanationsofthefeaturesandprocessesinvolvedintourismproductconcentration,diversificationandintensificationindesti-nations(Harvey,1996;Peet,1998).Theycanassist,forexample,inestablishing“thereasonsomedestinationshavebeensuccessfulinadoptingdiversificationwhilstothershave…failed”(Farmaki,2012,p.184).2.FrameworkoftourismproductconcentrationanddiversificationindestinationsFig.1presentsabroadconceptualframeworkidentifyingele-ments,connectionsandprocessesrelatedtotheconcentrationanddiversificationofprimarytourismproductsindestinations.Tourismproductfeaturesandprocesses,andnotablyproductconcentrationanddiversification,arethekeyconcernhere,sotheyareatthediagram'scenter.Theproductfeaturesandprocessescanonlybeunderstood,however,whenconsideredinrelationtootherassociatedelementsandprocesses.Thus,whilethepaperfocusesontourismproductfeaturesandprocesses(inthecenterofFig.1),theseareconnectedtotourismproductsupply(theleftsideofFig.1)andtouristdemandandproductuse(therightsideofFig.1).Thetwo-wayarrowsinFig.1linkingthesethreehorizontalele-ments(tourismproductfeaturesandprocesses,tourismproductsupply,andtouristdemandandproductuse)reflecttheirrecip-rocal,interactingrelationships.Touristdemandandconsumptionexperiences,forexample,areinseparablefromtourismproductionandsupply.ThustherelationshipsinFig.1arefluid,dialecticallyinter-related,andmutuallyconstitutedsothateachembodiesitsrecip-rocalrelationshipswiththeothers,andtheyshouldnotbeseenasrigidlydividedorasbinaries.Thismeans,forexample,that“thefactorsthatmakeupconsumptionandproductionareconstantlyfeedingbackononeanother,therebyinfluencingthedevelopmentoftourismproductsandtheirappealtocustomers”(Cooper&Hall,2008,p.5).Theconceptualframeworkcanassistinunderstandingtheconstituentelementsandprocessesofproductconcentrationanddiversification,butitshouldnotbeseeninareductionistway,dissectingcomplexrelationshipsintotheircomponentparts,whicharethenconsideredinisolation.Instead,theelementscanonlyfullybeunderstoodthroughtheirdialecticalrelationswitheachother(Bramwell,2007;Bramwell&Meyer,2007).AtthecenterofFig.1aretheprimarytourismproductfeaturesandprocessesintouristdestinations,withthecentralconcernherebeingwiththeconcentrationanddiversificationoftourismprod-ucts.Therearemanyrelatedfeaturesandprocesseswithinthiscentralpartofthediagram.Foreachdestinationtheyincludethemixofnicheandmasstourismproducts,aswellasthebalancebetweenparallelandintegrativediversificationofthetourismproducts.Otherkeyfeaturesandprocessesindestinationsincludethespatialsynergiesbetweenthetourismproducts,andthepres-enceandtypesofthematicsynergiesbetweentheproducts.Eachofthesecategoriesoftourismproductfeaturesandprocessesisexplainedsubsequently.Theseprimarytourismproductfeaturesandprocessesarecloselyinter-connected,asindicatedbythetwo-wayarrowsbetweenthem;andtheyarealsointimatelyassociatedwiththeprocessesoftourismproductsupplyandoftouristde-mandandproductuse,andtowhichtheyaresimilarlyconnectedthroughtwo-waysarrows.OntheleftsideofFig.1istheproductsupplyindestinations,withthissubstantiallyaffectedbythelegacyofphysical,environ-mentalandsocio-culturalcharacteristicsorattributes.Marketforcesarealsovitallyimportant,notablythroughbusinessesmak-ingcommercialdecisionsaboutproductsbasedoncurrentandpotentialfuturelevelsofdemand.Thecharacterofthatsupplycanalsobemuchinfluencedbydestinationcivilsociety,interestgroupsandgovernmentaccordingtotheirviewsabouttourism'simpactsanddesirableformsofdevelopment,includingthroughdestinationgovernanceaffectingtourism(Bramwell&Lane,2011;Dwyer&Kim,2003;Ritchie&Crouch,2003).Thegovernment'sinfluenceonproductsupplycanoftenincludeinfluencethroughitsowner-shipofsomeattractions.OntherightsideofFig.1istouristdemandfortourismproductsandalsothetouristusesofthoseproducts.Touristdemandreflectsinteractionswithtouristneedsandmoti-vations,includingtourists'desiresto“buildtheirwellbeinginwaysconsonantwiththeircharacterstrengths”(Pearce,2014,p.48).Thatdemandisalsoaffectedbytourists'expectations,images,ex-periencesandlevelofsatisfactionwiththedestinationproducts.Touristsmayhaveparticularexpectations,forexample,aboutthespecificcharacteroftheclimateandcultureofadestination.Therearealsoimportantinfluencesontourismproductprocessesfromthewaysinwhichtouristsdecidetousetheproductsthatdesti-nationsoffer,includinghowtheycombinethemixofproducts.ThereciprocalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofFig.1areemphasizedbytheblacktwo-wayarrowsbetweenthedifferentpartsofthediagram.DwyerandKim(2003,p.379)note,forexample,that“Actualvisitationwilldependonthematchbe-tweentouristpreferencesandperceiveddestinationproductof-ferings.Adestination'sproductmustdevelopinawaythat‘matches’theevolvingconsumerpreferences,ifthedestinationistoenhanceorevenmaintaincompetitiveness”.Anotherillustrationisthattouristdemandforadestinationmayincreasethroughsuchinnovationsasincreasingproductqualityandtherangeofproductofferings,andthisinturnhighlightstheimportanceofunder-standinghowtouristsplanandmixproductelementsintermsofexpectationsandactivities(Bramwell,2004a;Uysal,Chen,&Williams,2000;Weidenfeldetal.,2010,2011).Iftourismprod-uctsaredevelopedinwaysthatconflictwithtouristdemand,withthedestination'sintegrity,orwiththewishesoflocalactors,thenthiscanleadtodevelopmentthatisnotviablecommerciallyorisunsustainable.Inallpartsoftheframework,theelementsandtheirinter-connections(representedbytwo-wayarrows)alsobringtogetherthevariedtangibleandintangibleelementsoftourismproducts.Forexample,itisarguedherethat,whiletourismproductsindestinationsareoftenbasedonacomplexsetofphysical,envi-ronmentalandsocio-culturalattributesandinfrastructure,the216A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

Fig.1.Frameworkoftourismproductconcentrationanddiversificationindestinations.Source:Authors.

productimagesandtheirmeaningsarealsohighlyimportant.Further,itissuggestedthatwhattouristsarelookingforislargelytheexperiencesprovidedbytheattributesandinfrastructure,ratherthantheattributesandinfrastructurethemselves.Re-searchersincreasinglysuggestthattouristsareinterestedintheopportunitiesthatdestinationproductsofferthemtohelpcreatetheirownexperiences,sensations,lifestyles,identitiesandsocialstatus,albeitwithinthecontextoftheproductofferingandwidersociety(Cooper&Hall,2008;Hayes&MacLeod,2007).Itisalsoarguedthattourismproductexperiencesareassembledtomeetmarketdemandsthroughanincreasinglycarefulengineeringofexperiencestomatchspecificmarketexpectations,whichinvolvesthedetailedchoreographingofactivities,encountersandexperi-ences(Pine&Gilmore,1999).Fromthisperspective,destinationscanbedepictedasenvi-ronmentswheretourismproductexperiencesareco-producedorco-createdbyboththeproducersoftheproducts(ontheleftsideofFig.1),notablytourismstaffandthehostcommunity,andbytheproducts'consumers(ontherightsideofFig.1),whoactivelycreatetheirownpersonalexperiences,lifestylesandidentities(Chang&Huang,2014).Thisoccurs,however,withinvariousandoftenimportantconstraints,includingthelegacyofenvironmentalandsocio-culturalcharacteristicsofdestinationsandthesociety'sor-ganization.Thus,Kastenholz,Carneiro,Marques,andLima(2012,p.212)contendthatthetourismexperience“mustbeunderstoodasacomplexwhole,co-createdandsharedbytourists,servicepro-vidersandthelocalcommunity,andshapedbythedestination-specificresourcescontextthatprovidesthesignificantin-gredientsofthisexperience”.Thisco-creationoftourismproductexperiencesindestinationscanalsohelpfullybeconceivedasaninteractivelearningprocessfortouristsandalsofortheserviceprovidersandlocalcommunity.Serviceproviders,forexample,canaccumulateadditionalknowledgeovertimethroughtheco-creationprocesses,andthiscanassistthemtorefinetheproductsandtobuildrelationshipsoftrustandreputationwithtourists(Stamboulis&Skayannis,2003).Innovativedestinationsmaystrivetolearnfromsuchco-creationprocessesandtoapplytheresultingideasinproductdevelopment(Guia,Prats,&Comas,2006;Lee,Tussyadiah,&Zach,2010).SuchreciprocalprocessesbringtogetherallpartsofFig.1.ThetourismproductfeaturesandprocessesidentifiedinthecentralpartofFig.1canbefurtherunderstoodusingideasdevel-opedbySchumpeter(1934),aninfluentialthinkeraboutcontem-porarycapitalismwhosawentrepreneurshipasthecreationofopportunitiesforprofitfromconsumersthrough“newcombina-tions”orinnovationinthesupplyofcommoditiesbyfirmsaseconomicactors(thuscloselylinkingthethreehorizontalelementsinFig.1).AccordingtoJessopandSum(2000),SchumpeterA.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224217

identifieshowinnovationmayoccurbyintroducinganewgoodoranewqualityofagood,theintroductionofanewmethodofproductionorofhandlingaproductcommercially,theopeningofanewmarketforagood,theestablishingofanewsourceofsupplyfortheproduct,orbycreatinganeworganizationoftheindustryfortheproductionoftheproduct.TheseprocessesidentifiedbySchumpetercanhelptosuggestnewwaysthatdestinationsmayimprovetheirtourismcompetitivenessbyfindinginnovativeproductassemblystrategies(whichconnectthethreehorizontalelementsofFig.1),suchasthroughintroducingnewproducts,creatingnewthematicorspatiallinkagesbetweenproducts,combiningorbundlingdifferentproducts,matchingproductstonewmassornichemarkets,combiningmarkets(massand/orniche)innewwayswiththesameproducts,orthroughcooperationbetweenproductsuppliersinthedestination.Productassemblyindestinationscanbedepictedasinvolvingtheemergentprocessesofgatheringtogether,combiningandcompo-sition.Italsoconcernsthedialecticalrelationshipsbetweenele-mentsandprocesses,notablybetweenthethreeelementsinFig.1oftourismproductsupply,tourismproductfeaturesandprocesses,andtouristdemandandproductuse.Thereareusuallychoicesoroptionsforproductassembly,especiallybecauseproductsincludebothtangibleandintangibleelementsandbecauseofthepotentialtoaltertheintangible,themingandnarrativeaspectsofproducts.ForSternberg(1997,p.952),destinationproductsarebasedonthecomposingofexperiencessoastoendowthemwithdramaticcontentanddesirableimages.Heseesthisasinvolvingtwokeyprocessesoftouristiccomposition:staging,“whichconsistsofsettingup,arranging,andcontextualizingtheattraction”,andthe-matizing,“whichmeaningfullysituatestheattractionthroughthemes”.Insuchwaysproductassemblyoptionscanentailcarefullyorchestratedexperiencesassembledtomeetmarketdemands.Yettherearealsosignificantconstraintsfordestinationsintheirproductassemblyoptions,suchasduetothelegacyofenviron-mentalandsocio-culturalattributes,theexistenceoffinanciallimits,competitionandresistancefromtourismbusinesseswithinandoutsidethedestination,theinfluenceofestablishedtouristexpectations,theimportanceofcommercialviability,andthepo-tentialnegativeconsequencesofsomeoptions.Therecanalsobesignificantpressureforandagainstcertainoptionsamongdifferentactors.Further,someoptionswillprovetobeunsuccessful,suchasbecausetheyadverselyaffectsustainabledevelopmentorbecausetheyfailcommercially.TheelementsandprocessesassociatedwithtourismproductconcentrationanddiversificationeinthecentralpartofFig.1andthefocusofthepresentstudyerequireexplanationnext.Thecategoriespresentedherearenotexhaustive.2.1.TourismproductconcentrationanddiversificationThepaper'sfocusisonthenumberorrangeoftourismproductsindestinations,conceptualizedhereintermsofproductconcen-trationanddiversification,sothisisplacedatthecentreofFig.1.Productconcentrationentailstherebeingonlyoneorafewprimaryproductsinadestination,withthislimitedofferingpotentiallyprovidingtouristswithastrongandcoherentdestinationimageandidentity,andwithproductfamiliarity.Itmightalsoassisttourismbusinessesbyitencouraginggreatermarketknowledge,easiercoordinationoftheprovisionofsupportingfacilitiesandinfrastructure,andbyitfacilitatingeconomiesofscale,suchasthroughthedevelopmentofstandardizedpackages.Residentsmightalsofavortourismthatconcentratesononeorafewofthecharacteristicsoftheircommunityifithighlightsespeciallydistinctivecommunityfeaturesorestablishesahighprofileposi-tiveimagefortheircommunity.AccordingtoGetz,Svensson,Peterssen,andGunnervall(2012,p.48),concentratingononeproduct,suchasahallmarkevent,canbecompetitiveandsus-tainableifitcan“deliverclearbenefitstoresidentsandsustainthesupportofallkeystakeholders”.Yetthelackofadiversemixofdestinationproducts,imagesandexperiencesmayreduceoppor-tunitiestocustomizeexperiencesforindividualtourists,anditmayreduceadestination'sabilitytocompetewithothersimilardesti-nationswhichdevelopamorediverseoffering.Alimitedrangeofproductscanalsoresultinhigherrisksandvulnerability,suchastomarketfluctuationsandtocompetitordestinationswhichimprovetheirproducts(Bramwell,2004b).Whenadestination'sproductportfolioisbothlimitedinrangeanddependentonweathercon-ditions,thenthismayalsoresultinseasonalityproblems.Thediversificationofprimarytourismproductsindestinations,bycontrast,involvesofferingmorediverseproducts,whichpoten-tiallyaddsvaluebybroadeningtheexperiencesofexistingtouristsatthedestination,orattractingdifferenttypesoftouristswhomightnototherwisehavevisited(Moraru,2011).Suchproductdiversifi-cationcanprovidedestinationswiththebenefitsofeconomiesofscope,asdistinctfromeconomiesofscale(Greffe,1993).Oneapproachtoproductdiversificationindestinationsinvolvesthepackagingandpromotionofexistingproductsinordertocreatenewbundlesorcombinationsofproductsindestinations,whichthenbecomeadditionalnewproducts.Touriststhemselvescanalsocreatetheirowncustomizedcombinationsofexistingproducts,anapproachencouragedbyincreasingtouristuseofinformationtechnologies.Asecondpotentialapproachisfordestinationsdirectlytoaddnewtourismproductstotheexistingdestinationportfolio.Thiscanincludedevelopingnewproductsthatquitecloselyrelatetoexistingdestinationproducts,suchasthroughdiversifyingbeachtourismtoincludeoutdoorandindoorwatersports.Ontheotherhand,itcaninvolvediversificationintohighlydifferentnewproducts,suchasbyconnectingestablishedmasstourismproducts,suchasbeachresorts,withnewnichetourismproducts,suchaswildlifesafarisandculturaltourism(Weaver,2001).Onereasonforthelatterapproachisthatmasstourismcansupplythetouristsrequiredfornichetourismproducts,whichmeanstheymaycomplementeachotheranddevelopsidebyside(Christou,2012;Kontogeorgopoulos,2004,2009).Newcombina-tionsofexistingandnewtourismproductswilldiversifythetouristproductexperiences,andthatcanhelpwithattractingnewmar-ketsandretainingexistingmarkets.Otherspecificdirectionsmaybetakenwhendestinationsdiversifywithnewtourismproducts.Oneinvolves“developingnew,large-scaletourismproducts,suchasgolfcourses,marinas,casinosandexhibitionsandconferencecentres,withtheseoftenintendedtoattracthighspendingvisitors”(Bramwell,2004a,p.2).Thesedevelopmentsmaybeaimedatspecializedbutlargemar-kets.Whiletheymayalsobedirectedat“exclusive”,“up-market”audiences,theymayhavemasstourismfeaturesastheycanbelargefacilitiesthatattractsubstantialnumbersofusers.Anotherdirectionforsuchdiversificationentails“developing‘alternative’tourismproductsthat,atleastinitially,maybeprovidedonasmallscaleandmaydrawonuniquefeatures,suchasadestination'shistory,cultureorecology”(Bramwell,2004a,pp.2e3).Theprod-ucts,however,mayjustbeadditionaltouristexperienceswhichcouldbeexperiencedatmanydestinations,andtheymayalsodevelopovertimeintolarge-scale,masstourismactivities.Thus,tourismproductdiversificationindestinationsincludesmanypotentialtypesofinnovativeassemblyprocesses,assuggestedbySchumpeter(1934)inrelationtothesupplyofcommoditiesbyfirms.Thereareoftenalsosignificantconstraintsontheoptions,however,suchasbecauseoftheendowmentofpotentialtourismresourcesindestinationsandduetomarketpressures,includingestablishedconsumerexpectationsaboutdestinationproducts.218A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

2.2.NicheandmasstourismproductsStrategiesforprimarytourismproductdiversificationandcon-centrationindestinationsoftenconcernwhethertodevelopmassornichetourism(Fig.1)(Gartner,1996;Smith&Eadington,1992).Intensivelydevelopedandusedtourismproductshaveconven-tionallybeenlabeledasmasstourism(Vainikka,2013).Masstourismisoftendepictedasalarge-scaleactivityinvolvingsub-stantialnumbersoftourists,andonethatoftenstandsoutpromi-nentlyfromadestination'ssurroundings.Somealsopresentitasinvolvinghighlystandardizedandinflexibletourismproducts(Milne&Ateljevic,2001;Mowforth&Munt,2009;Torres,2002).Nichetourismproducts,bycontrast,aregenerallyseenasappealingtosmallerandperhapsmorespecialistmarkets,andthelowernumbersinvolvedcanmeanthatlessinfrastructureisrequired(Novelli,2005).Theproductsmaybeseenasmorespecialized,individualized,small-scaleandflexible.Themassandnichecategoriesmightbeconsideredlargelyassimplificationstoaidunderstandingaboutdestinationfeatures.Theycanbeseenas“idealtypes”onascaleorcontinuum,withmassandnicheateitherendofthescale.Inpracticetheseextremesrarelyfullycharacterizetourismacrossalargedestination;rather,theyareusuallyonlytendenciesatthatgeographicalscale.Tourisminsmallerplacesisalsomorelikelytobeperceivedaslarge-scale.Theabsoluteextremesarealsounlikelytooccurforotherrea-sons.Torres(2002,p.93),forexample,arguesinrelationtomasstourismthatthereisoftenafailuretorecognize“theabilityofFordistmodesofproductionandconsumptiontobecomehighlyspecializedandflexible,whileretainingamassscale”.Anothercomplicationisthatproductsthatmaybeconsideredtocaterforfairlyspecialistmarkets,suchasgolfcourses,casinosandmarinas,actuallycanattractquitelargetouristnumbersandmayrequirelarge-scalefacilities(Bramwell,2004a).Despitesuchcomplications,themassandnichecategoriesremainanalyticallyusefulinunderstandingbroadproductten-denciesindestinations.Thesecategoriessuggestimportantques-tionsaboutthescaleortheintensificationoftourismandaboutthediversityandmixofproducts.Scaleissuesarehighlyrelevant,forexample,forsustainabledevelopmentobjectives.Developingarangeofnichemarketproductsinadestination,forinstance,ratherthanafewmasstourism-relatedproducts,mightenabletourismtodrawondistinctivelocalculturalandenvironmentalfeatures,butitmightalsoleadtomoresociallyintrusiveformsoftourismthatdisturbcommunitylife.Similarly,whendestinationsconcentrateonafewmasstourism-relatedproducts,suchasbeachtourism,thismightlimitthegeographicalspreadoftourism'sadverseimpacts,butitmayalsohindereconomiclinkageswiththelocaleconomyandrestrictthelocalavailabilityoftouristjobs(Christou,2012).Itisincreasinglyarguedthateithermassornichetourismcanberela-tivelymoresustainabledependingonthespecificlocalcircum-stances,suchaswhethertherearelocalqualitycontrolmeasuresandwhetherlocalactorsarecommittedtoimplementingsuchcontrols(Panakera,Willson,Ryan,&Liu,2011;Weaver,2000).2.3.ParallelandintegrativediversificationoftourismproductsTourismproductdiversificationindestinationscanoccureitherinparallelorinanintegrativemanner(Fig.1).First,paralleldiversificationoccursindestinationswhenprimarytourismproductsattractsignificantlydifferentcustomers,andwhentheyaredeveloped,managedandmarketedasseparateentitiesfromeachother.Parallelproductsdonottend,forexample,tosharetheircostsorfindsynergiesandcomplementarylinkages,andthustheymaynotreducerisksthroughcooperation.Paralleldiversificationcanoccurcircumstantially,asaconsequenceofunplanneddevelopment,oritmaybeadeliberatestrategy.Itmightbeadeliberatestrategyiftherearemarkedculturalorlifestylediffer-encesbetweentouristgroups,andespeciallyifthedifferencescouldleadtotensionandconflicts.AnexampleoccursinsomeMuslimcountrieswherewhathavebeencalled“halaltourism”hotelsandotherfacilitiescanbeisolatedfrom“Westerntourism”facilities(Jafari&Scott,2014).Similarly,geographicallyseparateresortenclavesofhighqualityhotelsforrelativelywell-offinter-nationaltouristscanemergeinsomelessdevelopedcountries.Suchenclaveslocatedatageographicaldistancefromtouristareasfordomestictouristsandlesswell-offinternationaltouristsarefoundalongcertaincoastalstretchesoftheislandofMauritius(Nunkoo&Ramkissoon,2010).Second,integrativediversificationoccurswhentourismprod-uctsarelinkedtogetherinadestination,withcomplementaryproductsbeingcombinedeinorganizedpackagesorininformalpatternsofvisitseandwithpotentialforcooperationinbusinessactivitiesbetweentheproductproviders.AnexampleisthelinkingofheritagetourismtogetherwithcoastalresorttourisminpartsoftheMediterranean,withheritageenhancingthecoastalresortexperiencebyofferingpossibilitiesforexcursionsandculturalperformances(Ashworth&Tunbridge,2005).Integrativediversi-ficationasaformofproductassemblycaninvolvecombiningexistingproducts,developingentirelynewproducts,modifyingexistingproducts,orvariouscombinationsofthese,anditmaybedirectedatmaintainingcurrenttouristmarketsoratattractingnewmarkets.Integrativeproductassemblageoftendependsontherebeingcomplementaryfeaturesbetweentheproducts,andonvarioussynergiesandconnectionsbeingbuiltup.Integrationcanbeencouragedthroughcooperationandcollaborationbetweenthesuppliersofthedifferenttourismproductssothattheycreatecoherentpackaging,themesandimaging,andalsoundertakejointmarketingandcooperateininformationtechnology(Buhalis,2000;Go&Govers,1999).Suchjointpromotionandworkingcanbeencouragedwhencompatiblesitesandattractionsarespatiallyadjacent,neartoexistingtouristroutes,orarecombinedwithinnewtouristroutes(Jansen-Verbeke&Lievois,1999;Nordin,2003;Weidenfeld,etal.,2011).AstudybyKontogeorgopoulos(2005)illustratestheintegrativediversificationofprimarytourismproductsthroughspatialover-lapsandotherconnectionsbetweenmasstourismandecotourismproductsinPhuket,Thailand.Henotesthatthere“thebulkofrecentecotourismactivities…havegrownoutof,andadjacentto,‘typical’masssitessuchasthehotelcomplexesandurbancentres”,andhearguesthatthisisnotcoincidentalbecause“Withoutclosetiestomasstourism,[ecotourism]companiessuchasSeaCanoeandSiamSafariwouldfailtosurvivefinancially”(Kontogeorgopoulos,2005,p.5).Phuket'secotourismcompaniesareidentifiedascloselydependentonthearea'smasstourismin-dustry,withtheirclienteleusingthearea'ssubstantialmasstourisminfrastructure(suchasthecity'sairport),oftenstayinginlargeandluxurioushotels,andoftenusinglocaltravelagentstobooktheirecotourismtrip.Integrativeproductassemblythatbringstogetherdifferentproductsandexperiencescancreatecumulativeeffectsandsyn-ergiesinpeople'sperceptions,emotionsandattachmentsthatadduptomorethantheindividualproductcomponentparts.Theseeffectscanenhanceadestination'ssymbolicimagesandmeanings,andalsoimprovetheoveralltouristexperienceofthedestination,therebyincreasingdestinationcompetitiveness.SucheffectsareidentifiedbyBrunoriandRossi(2000,p.411)inrelationtotheintegrationofdifferenttourismproductsonwineroutes.Theyarguethat“thecreationofatouristexperiencearoundawinerouteisnotsimplythesumoftheoutputsfromindividualfarms.Theintegrationoffarmers'effortscreatesastructuredcoherenceofA.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224219

symbolicandmaterialelements,whichaddsvaluetothesingleproductswhetheritiswine,gastronomicproductsoraccommodation”.Attimestheintegrativediversificationoftourismproductsservesmerelytoextendholidaypackageswithouttherebeingstrongcompatibilitiesandcomplementaritiesbetweentheprod-ucts.Suchpoorlyintegratedproductassemblycanresultinunclearimagesandinunsatisfyingtouristexperiences.InadiscussionofTurkishtourismproductdifferentiation,DumanandKozak(2010,p.104)arguethat“mosttoursappeartoemphasizeseasidevaca-tionfeaturesalongwithaddedsightseeingtourstowell-knownplacesand[they]donotnecessarilyhaveanidentifiableuniquethemethatwouldcharacterizeanddifferentiatethetourandmakeitmorecompetitive”.Achievinggreatercompetitivenessthroughintegrativediversi-ficationislikelytobemosteffectivewhenadd-onproductsofferdistinctiveculturalmeaningsandenjoyableexperiencesthatclearlyaddvaluetotourists'holidayexperiences.InthecaseofPhuket'sproductassembly,whichintegratesmasstourismandecotourism,Kontogeorgopoulos(2005)arguesthattheclosephysicalproximityofthemasstourismresortstothe“natural”ecotourismareasmeansthatthearea'secotourismoperatorshaveoftenemployed“communicativestaging”tohighlightthedistinc-tivetouristexperiencesofnaturalauthenticityandgeographicalremoteness.Thishasinvolvedengineeringthemeaningsandex-periencesbyfindingmoredramaticsceniclocations,providing“hands-on”experienceswithrockformations,waterandvegeta-tion,usinggreen-paintedLandRovers,havingguidesthatwearkhakiadventuregear,andcommunicatingauthenticityanddis-coveryinthetextualdiscoursesandimagesinpromotionalmate-rialforthetours.Insuchwaystheecotourismoperatorshavecarefullyorchestratedtheassemblyofthetourists'expectations,encountersandexperiences.2.4.TourismproductthematicsynergyLinkagesandsynergiescanemergebetweendiversifiedtourismproductsindestinationsbasedontheirthematiccompatibilityandcomplementarity(Hunt&Crompton,2008;Weidenfeldetal.,2011).Weidenfeldetal.(2010,p.2)describecompatibilityamongtouristattractionsas“thedegreetowhichtwobusinessesinter-changecustomers”,withthatoftenbasedonthesynergiesofap-pealandsymbolicmeaningsbetweentheattractions.Productassemblylinkagesbetweentouristattractionsindestinationsmightdevelopcircumstantiallyortheycanbedeliberatelyfosteredinordertoachievemutualbenefits.Therearesynergiesandlink-agesthroughthecompatibleandcomplementaryappealbetweenattractions,andtheattractionsmayalsodevelopcooperativeworking,suchasthroughsharingmarketingandimaging,specialisttraining,andticketingactivities.AccordingtoBrunoriandRossi(2000,p.410),synergiesamongattractionsinvolve“linkagesbe-tweentwoormoreentities,whosejointeffortproduceeffectsthatarequantitativelyandqualitativelymorefarreachingthantheef-fectsofsimilarentitieswhentheyoperatealone”.Developingsynergiesamongproductsandattractionscanhelptoavoidnega-tivecompetition,improvecooperation,prolongtheholidayseason,andenhanceoveralldestinationperformance(Torres,2002;Weidenfeldetal.,2010,2011).Forexample,thesynergybetweenoutdoorandindoorwatersportsinbeachtourismdestinationscanhelptoreduceseasonalityduetopoorweather.Destinationscanassembletogethertourismproductswitheithersimilarordissimilarfeatures.Withthefirstoftheseap-proaches,thatofcombiningsimilarproducts,theproductsarelikelytosharesomecommoncharacteristicsandtooffersomerelatedmeaningsandexperiences,featuresthatcanprovideabasisforthedevelopmentofsynergies(Brunori&Rossi,2000).Yet,connectingtogetherverysimilarproductsandattractionsinadestinationcouldbeseenasaproductconcentrationstrategy,ratherthanasadiversificationstrategy.Iftheproductsandat-tractionsdifferalittle,however,thenthismightbeseeninsteadasdiversificationintoassociatedbutmorespecificproducts.Thatmightbethecase,forexample,withbeachtourismresortsthataddsuchproductsasoutdoorandindoorwatersports,spas,scubadivingandwhalewatching.Thesecondapproachtolinkingdiversifieddestinationproductsistoconnectdissimilarproductsandattractions.AccordingtoLue,Crompton,andStewart(1996),touristsmaypreferdestinationswithvariedattractionsbasedondifferentproductfeaturesasthatvarietyismorelikelytosatisfyalltouristgroupmembers(Weidenfeldetal.,2010,2011).Further,generalleisuretouristsarenotalwaysseekingaspecifictypeoftourismproduct,andthustheymayappreciatesomediversity.Effectivediversificationbasedondissimilarityentailstheassemblyofdissimilarproductsandex-perienceswhicharecompatibleandcomplementary(Brunori&Rossi,2000).Non-complementarydissimilartourismproductsareunlikelytodevelopsynergies,andtheyaremorelikelytoremainasseparateandparallelattractions(Weidenfeldetal.,2010).Theeffectiveintegrationofdissimilarproductsindestinationswillencouragetouriststobecomeimmersedinthedestinationandtohavemorevariedexperiences,featuresthatcanpromotedestina-tioncompetitiveness.2.5.TourismproductspatialsynergyPrimarytourismproductsindestinationsmayformspatialclusters,andtheirco-locatedagglomerationmayhaveanenhancedappealfortourists.Suchclusterscanemergeinunplannedorplannedways.Thecombinationofspatialproximityamongprod-uctsandattractions,combinedwithsynergiesofappealbetweenthem,canresultinanincreasedlikelihoodthattouristswhovisitoneattractionwillvisitothers.Weidenfeldetal.(2011,p.597)describehowthegeographicalclusteringofattractions“createsspin-offbenefitsintermsofgeneratingincreasedaggregatevisitornumbersandprovidesacriticalmassofactivitiestoattractvisi-tors”.Theysuggestthatspatialclustersofsimilarordifferenttourismproductscanhelpinassembling“anarrativestructurethatwillleadvisitorsthroughthematicallyinterrelatedsub-attractionsandcreatebusinessopportunitiesandextendlengthofstay”(p.600).Michael(2003,p.137)furthercontendsthat,wherethecir-cumstancesarefavorable,suchclustersmayhavemultiplierandexternalityeffects,“acceleratingopportunitiesfornewformsofeconomicwealthbycreatingademandforahostofcomplemen-taryactivitieswhichinturngeneratetheirowneffects”.Thenotionof“co-opetition”suggeststhatgeographicalclusteringbetweentourismattractionsprovidestheattractionswithmutualsynergiesandothersharedbenefitsthatcanhelptheattractionstocompetemoreeffectivelywithothersoutsidetheclusterthatofferasimilarproduct(Brandenburger&Nalebuff,1997).Spatialproximityamongdiversifieddestinationproductscreatesagreaterlocaldensityofproductsthatinturncanencouragemutuallinkagesandsynergies,suchasthroughjointmarketing,cross-selling,sharedbuyinggroups,andtheformationoflocaltourismassociations.Atthesametime,however,spatialproximitybetweenproductsandattractionscanalsoencouragecompetitionamongthem.Thebalancebetweencooperationandcompetition,andtheextentofthelinkagesandsynergies,mayvarybetweendifferenttypesofspatialproductclusters.IntheirstudyofthegeographicalclusteringoftouristattractionsinCornwall,UK,Weidenfeldetal.(2011)suggestthatthebalancebetweencompetitionandcoopera-tionbetweennearbyattractionswillvaryaccordingtothevarious220A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

attractions'strategicdecisions.Buttheyfoundthat“Inmostcases,thegreaterthespatialproximityandthethematicproductcomplementaritybetweenattractions,thehigherthelevelofcoop-eration”(p.624).Theyalsonotedthat“co-locatedsimilarproductattractionsarelikelytobelesscooperative,whereasthematiccom-plementaryonesarelikelytobecometheclosestalliesandachievethehighestlevelsofinterdependency”(p.627).Similarly,inastudyofChinesenationalparks,Ma,Ryan,andBao(2009)suggestthatwhennationalparkswithsimilarfeaturesarespatiallyclustered,thentheremaybesubstitutiveeffectsandintensecompetitionamongthemformarketshare.Theyalsoassertthatwhennationalparkswithdifferentcharacteristicsarespatiallyclustered,thensynergieswillarise,“andtheattractivenessofaclusterofnationalparksasonedestinationwillbeimproved”(p.28).3.FrameworkoftourismproductdevelopmentoptionsindestinationsThefirstconceptualframeworkexaminedtheelements,con-nectionsandprocessesofconcentrationanddiversificationforprimarytourismproductsindestinations,anditwasbasedonabroadandintegrativeperspectiveonthecomplexandreciprocalrelationsbetweentheassociatedelements.Attentionnextfocusesonamorespecificconceptualframework(Fig.2)thatconsidersstrategicoptionsfortourismdestinations.Itisbasedonjusttwofeaturesofthedevelopmentofprimarytourismproductsindes-tinations:theextentoftheirproductconcentrationanddiversifi-cation(onascalefromlowdiversificationtohighdiversification),andtheextentoftheirproductintensification(onascalefromlowintensificationinoneormorenicheproductstohighintensificationinoneormoremasstourismproducts).Thesetwofeaturesofprimarytourismproductsindestinationswerechosenastheyarefundamentaldimensionsofdestinationdevelopmentandofrelatedplanningstrategies.Thetwoscaleshelpinidentifyingbroadop-tionsfortourismproductdevelopmentinadestination,aswellaspotentialstrategicdirectionsfordestinationsbetweentheoptions,asindicatedbythearrows.Therearefivebroadoptions,althoughconsiderationofparallelandintegrativediversificationfurtherin-creasestheoptions.Theframeworkassistsindistinguishinganalyticallybetweenstrategicoptionsfortourismdevelopmentindestinations.Theoptionsaresimply“idealtypes”,however,andwhenspecificdestinationsarecomparedagainsttheframework'soptionsthentheactualsituationisusuallymorecomplex.Inanydestination,forexample,theremaybeelementsofmorethanoneofthefiveop-tionsinvariouscombinationsandrelationships.Oftenitisalsodifficulttodistinguishbetweenmassandnichetourismproducts,especiallyasnicheproductscanbegintoappealtolargetouristnumbers,andespeciallysowhentherearesynergiesbetweenadestination'sproducts.Anothercomplicationisthatsome“idealtypes”indicatedinFig.2maytendonlytobefoundinsmallgeographicalareas,withahigherlikelihoodthatmorecomplextourismproductdiversificationpatternswillbefoundindestina-tionswithalargergeographicalarea,wheretheretendtobemorediversetourismresourcesandmorecommunitieswithdifferingdevelopmentneeds.Inaddition,thenumbersoftouristsattractedbyatourismproductmaybeconsideredanichemarketinabusyurbantourismdestination,whilethesamenumbersmightbeperceivedasmassmarketinaremoteruraldestination.Therearealsotransitionalfeaturesasprimarytourismproductsevolvewithindestinations,andthusFig.2usesindicativearrowstosuggestsomepotentialdevelopmenttrendsbetweenthe“idealtype”options.Astimepasses,forinstance,itisincreasinglylikelythatdestinationswillpassthresholdsintermsoftouristnumbers,businessdevelopmentandcapitalaccumulation,whichwillthenencouragegreaterproductdiversificationandcomplexity.Yet,itisalsopossiblethatsomeproductswillfailtothrive,sothatproductdiversityinadestinationcanreduceovertime.Suchtemporaltrajectoriesindestinationsareaffectedbytheoperationofthemarketandalsobytourism'sregulatoryframeworks,suchasthroughtheuseoftourismandgeneraldevelopmentplans,moratorialawsrestrictingnewdevelopment,andconstraintsonbuildingheight.Anothercomplexityinrelationshipsbetweentheextentofproductdiversificationandthedegreeofproductinten-sificationisthattheyareofteninterrelateddimensions.Itcanbeuseful,therefore,toconsiderthatthesedimensionsco-evolvetogetherovertime.Despitethecomplexityofprimarytourismproductelementsandrelationshipsindestinations,itiscontendedthatthesimplified“idealtype”frameworkcanassistresearchersandpolicymakerstoidentifypotentialoptionsfortourismproductdevelopmentandforrelateddestinationplanningandgrowthmanagement.Thecate-goriesalsohelpustosliceanalyticallyintomorecontingentandcomplexrealworldsituations.ManytouristsandlocalresidentsinFig.2.Frameworkoftourismproductdevelopmentoptionsindestinations.Source:Authors.

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destinationsintheirdiscussionsabouttourismoftenintuitivelyrefertothescaleofdevelopmentandtodistinctionsbetweenmasstourismandspecialinteresttourism,whichsuggeststhesedi-mensionsmayassistinourthinking(Chaperon&Bramwell,2011).Criticalinsightscanalsobegained,bothanalyticallyandempiri-cally,byexploringthecategoriesinFig.2againstspecificcasesandbyevaluatingthecomplexitiesthatarelesseasilyrelatedtothesimplifiedtypology.Next,eachofthefive“idealtype”tourismproductdevelopmentoptionsisbrieflyexplainedandillustrated.3.1.ConcentratednichetourismThisoptionrepresentsadestinationwithoneoraverysmallnumberofprimarytourismproductsthatattractafairlysmallnumberoftourists.Itmightoccuratanearlystageoftourismdevelopment,whenlimitednumbersoftouristsdiscoveranewdestinationandwhenafewlocalbusinessesrecognizethisactivityasaneconomicopportunity(Godfrey&Clarke,2000;Weaver,2000).ThismightbesimilartoButler's(1980)explorationstageofdestinationdevelopment,whenitissuggestedthatadventuroustouristsinitiallydiscoveraplace.However,thenichetourismdevelopmentoptionmayalsobeonethatdestinationsdesireinthelongerterm,forsuchreasonsasseekingamorebalancedeconomy,duetoalackofinfrastructure,orbecauseoflimitedlocalinterestorgovernmentwillconcerningtourismdevelopment.AnexampleofconcentratednichetourismiswildlifetourisminpartsofTanzania,wherethisspecifictourismfocushaspartlyresultedfromalackofinfrastructure,trainedstaff,legalframe-works,andmarketingandpromotion(Wade,Mwasaga,&Eagles,2001).Yet,wildlifetourisminsomeareasofTanzania,suchasinthenortherngameandmountainparks“circuit”,whichincludestheSerengetiNationalPark,hasgrowninscaletoapointwheresomemightconsiderthatitnolongerrepresentsnichetourism(Nelson,2008).Further,Tanzania'swildlifetourismhasinplacesalsoincorporatedcommunity-basedtourisminitiatives,andtheretheproducthasdiversifiedtoalsoincludecultural,ethnicandcrafttourism.3.2.ConcentratedmasstourismThisdevelopmentstrategyinvolvestouristsbeingattractedtothedestinationinlargenumbersbasedonasingleorjustafewprimarytourismproductswhichareintensivelydevelopedandused.In“concentratedmasstourism”destinationsthereisoftenrapiddevelopmentofsecondaryandconditionalproducts(Jansen-Verbeke,1986)aroundasingleorafewcloselyrelatedprimarytourismproducts.Insomeplaces,particularlysomecoastalresorts,themassproductionandconsumptionfeaturesconcentratedonalimitedproductrangehaveencouragedarelativelymodestqualityofdevelopment.DestinationswithconcentratedmasstourismcharacteristicsincludeCancúninMexico(Martínez,Nechar,&Gonz󰀁alez,2013),andPhuketinThailandbetween1990and1996(Kontogeorgopoulos,1998).TheMexicanconcentratedmasstourismbeachresortofLosCaboswasdevelopedintheearly1980s,anditnowhas40hotels,numeroustimeshareapartmentsandtouristcondominiums,sevenchampionshipgolfcourses,anditsbeach-basedactivitiesaresupplementedwithdeep-seasportfishing,scubadiving,snorkelling,surfingandwindsurfing(Agarwal&Shaw,2007).Whenmasstourismissuccessful,destinationpolicymakersmaybeunconcernedaboutsubstantiallydiversifyingthetourismproducts,orreluctanttotakerisksininvestinginalternativecul-turalandenvironmentaltourismresources.Slinger-Friedman(2009,p.18)commentsthat“Thedevelopmentofsun,sea,andsandtourismintheCaribbeanhasmeantthatmanyislandshavebeenslowtopromotetheirotherenvironmentalassets”.Concen-tratedmasstourismdevelopmentwhichisinflexibleandlowquality,however,maystarttoloseitsattractionfortouristswithincreasinglysophisticatedinterestsandrequirements.InTurkeyithasalsobeenarguedthat“traditionalseasidetourismshouldbelinkedwithinlandtourism,basedontherichcultureandnaturallandscapeofthelatter”,withthisdiversificationbeingproposedinorderto“allowtourismdemandforbigcoastalcitiestobedispersedinland,thusenablingdevelopmenttospreadmoreevenlyviainfrastructureandtourismfacilities”(Duman&Kozak,2010,p.102).Diversificationwithinconcentratedmasstourismresortsmayalsoevolveoutofitscoreproducts.Indeed,therangeofbeachactivitiesandotherfacilitiesinsomeresortsmightbearguedtoinvolvefeaturesofnichemarkettourism,oratleastofdiversifiedmasstourism.3.3.Diversifiedparallel/integrativenichetourismInthisformofproductdiversificationtheprimarytourismproductsinadestinationarelargelybasedonanumberofnichemarket,small-scaleproducts.Ontheonehand,thedestination'snicheproductsmaydevelopseparatelyandinparallel,withdiscretetouristmarketsegmentsbeingattracted,andwiththeproducersofthedifferentnicheproductspossiblyfailingtocooperateformutualcommercialbenefit.Alternatively,thedestination'snicheproductsmaybeusedinmoreintegrativeways,withtouristsinterestedinseveralofthenicheproducts,andwithproducersoftheseproductspotentiallysuccessfullycooperatingtogether.ThesmallCaribbeanislandnationofDominicahasdevelopedthroughavarietyofrelativelynichetourismactivitiesrelatedtonatureandtheisland'sindigenouspopulationofCaribs,withtouristvisitationofonly84,000in2006.Dominica'srockyshoresandblacksandbeaches,aswellasthephysicaldifficultyofexpandingairportprovision,havedeterredtraditionalresort-basedmasstourism(Slinger-Friedman,2009;Weaver,2014).Diverseeco-,culturalandadventuretourismactivitieshavedevelopedbasedontheisland'sabundantbiologicalandnaturalassets,suchasitstropicalrain-forests,hotsulphursprings,floweringplants,waterfalls,whalewatchingopportunities,divingsites,theBoilingLake,andlargebatandbirdpopulations.Therearehikingandbikingtrailsandadventuretourismopportunitiesassociatedwiththerivers,lakesandwaterfalls,andculturaltourismhasdevelopedaroundthepresenceoftheindigenouspopulationofCaribs,whosellhandi-craftsandoperateguesthouses.Yet,onDominicatherearethreatstothissmall-scaletourism,notablyfromcruisetourism,withalmost300,000cruisetouristvisitsduring2011e12,andfromopportunisticdevelopment.Weaver(2014,p.528)suggeststhat“Thispervasiveopportunismportendsamass-tourismfutureforDominica”.3.4.Diversifiedparallel/integrativemasstourismWiththisformofproductdiversificationthedestinationprod-uctsarelargelybasedonintensivelydevelopedandusedprimarytourismproducts.Itentailsseveral,butpossiblyrelated,large-scaleactivitieswhichattractlargevolumesoftouristsandthatmaywellstandoutfromtheirsurroundings.Aswiththepreviouscategory,thesemasstourismproductsmaydevelopinparallelforrelativelyseparatetouristmarketsandwithpossiblylimitedcooperationbetweentheproviders,orelsetheremaybesubstantialnumbersoftouristswhoconsumeseveraloftheseproductsduringtheirvisittothedestination,sothattheyareintegratedintermsoftouristuse,andcooperativearrangementsmightalsobeinplaceamongthetourismoperators.Thefeaturesofdiversifiedmasstourismareevidentinmanymoremature,largecoastalresortsaroundtheMediterranean.On222A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

theMediterraneanislandofMalta,forexample,thenorthcoastresortshaveseenthedevelopmentoflarge-scaletourismproducts,notablylargemarinasatSliema'sHiltonHotelcomplex,atManoelIsland(betweenSliemaandthecapitalcityofValletta),andatCottonera(ahistoricareaoppositeValletta),aswellasalargesealifetouristattractionnearthemajorresortofBugibba,_andcasinosintheresortsofStJulian'sandQawra(Bramwell,2007).Manyhotelshavealsodevelopedbusinesstourismfacilities,suchasconference,exhibitionandmeetingsspaces,inordertoattractbusinesstouristsandtoincreaseyear-roundhoteloccupancy.Theseproductsareoftenquitelarge-scalefacilitiesthatappealtolargenumbersoftourists,evenifonlyasabackdropforavisitasinthecaseofthemarinas,althoughitispossibletoseesomeofthemasnichemarketproducts.Tofurtheraddtothedifficultiesofcategorization,Maltaisalsodevelopingotherproductswhichtraditionallyhavebeenseenasnichetourismproducts,asdiscussednext.3.5.Diversifiedparallel/integrativemassandnichetourismMaltaisagoodillustrationofadestinationcombiningbothmassandnichetourismproducts.ThatdiversityisincreasinglyevidentwhenthespatialscaleofanalysisiswidenedtoincludethesmallerMalteseislandofGozo.ThereareseveralsignificantnichetourismproductsonGozo,alargelyruralislandthatisdoublyperipheralbecauseaccesstoitfromthemainislandofMaltainvolvesaseacrossing(Bramwell,2007;Chaperon&Bramwell,2011,2013).Whilethemainislandhasmuchresortdevelopmentwithrelatedmasstourismproducts,thisisfarlessevidentonGozo.OvernighttouristnumbersforGozoaremodest,withmanytouristsattractedbyitsgoodqualitydivingsites,walkingopportunitiestoexperiencetheattractivesceneryandsmallruralsettlements,heritagesites,anditstraditionalwaysoflife.TheintegrityandsmallscaleofthesetourismactivitiesismorefeasibleduetoGozo'sphysicalseparationfromthemainisland'smasstourismresorts.Gozo'scircumstanceshaveencourageditsovernighttourismindustrytodevelopitsnicheproductsmoreinparallelratherthaninanintegratedwaywithMalta'smasstourism.Since1989,however,theMaltesegovernmenthassoughttodiversifythemainisland'sowntourismproductstoincludecul-tural,heritageandruraltourism,withtheseoftenseenasnichetourismproducts(Bramwell,2007;Markwick,1999).Themainisland'sheritagesitesincludetheancienttempleofMnajdraandthe16thcenturycityofValletta,bothWorldHeritageSites.Whiledepictedbysomeasnichetourism,someoftheisland'sheritageandculturalsitesarevisitedbylargevolumesoftourists,andmanytouristswhovisitthosesitesareprincipallyattractedtoMaltabythebeachtourismoffer,orareondayexcursionsfromcruiseships.Thus,someofthemainisland'sheritageandculturesitesmaybebetterdepictedasmasstourismratherthannichetourismsites.4.ConclusionsThepaperhasarguedthatthereisaneedformoreresearchwithaconsistentfocusonunderstandingthefeaturesandrelationshipsassociatedwithprimarytourismproductsindestinations.Abroad,relationalperspectiveondestinationproductassemblycanassistwiththisresearchasitdirectsattentiontotherelationshipsinvolvedwithtourismproductsandproductdevelopmentpro-cesses,includingwiththeirwidercontexts.Primarytourismproductsarekeydrawcardsthatprompttouriststovisitadesti-nation,andyettherearesurprisinglyfewconceptually-focusedstudiesexaminingtheirvariedelements,theprocessesthroughwhichtheyoperateandareinter-connected,orhowthosefeaturesandprocessesaremanifestedindifferentdestinations.Theconceptoftourismproductassemblyindestinationscanhelptodirectattentiontotheseissues.Thispaperhasbeguntoexamineanalyticallyandconceptuallythedifferentelements,processesandrelationshipsthatareinvolvedwiththisassembly.Twoconceptualframeworksweredevelopedwhichconsidertheelements,processesandstrategicoptionsconnectedwithprimarytourismproductassemblyindestinations.Thefirstframeworkconsideredthebroadrelationshipsindestinationsbetweenproductfeaturesandprocesses,touristdemandandproductuse,andtourismproductsupply.Itfocusedinparticularonthefeaturesandprocessesassociatedwithtourismproductsindestinations,notablythoseconnectedwithproductconcentrationanddiversification.Thesec-ondframeworkpresentedatypologyofstrategicoptionsforthedevelopmentofprimarytourismproductsindestinations,thisbeingbasedonthedegreeofproductintensificationandalsoofconcen-trationanddiversification.Theseframeworksaresystematized,simplifyingheuristicdevicesthatidentifyparticularlyimportantfeaturesandprocesses,andalsogrouptogetherrelatedideasandrelationships.Theyareintendedtoaddtoourunderstandingofdestinationprimarytourismproductsbyassistingresearchersandpractitionerstodevelopbroadandcoherentexplanations.Theframeworkshighlightpotentialcombinationsofprimarytourismproductsandprocessesindestinations,withthesealsoindicatingproductoptionsforthefuturestrategicdevelopmentofdestinations.Theseproductdevelopmentoptionsincludedevelopingnicheormasstourismproducts,diversifyinginparallelorintegrativeways,anddevelopingspatialorthematicsynergies;andtheyalsoinvolveinter-relatedtangibleandmoreintangibleelements.Futurestudiesoftheassemblyofprimarytourismproductsindestinationscouldexploreinmoredepththeproductfeatures,pro-cessesandstrategicoptionsidentifiedinthepaper.Thesestudiesmightusefullyapplythebroadandrelationalframeworkspresentedhere.Thespecificfeatures,combinationsandprocesseswillvaryaccordingtoeachdestination'scontext,butassessmentsofsuchcontingentvariationsbetweenplaceswillhelpinunderstandingmoregeneralprocesses.Thisstudyhasfocusedonrationalesfordifferentapproachestoproductconcentrationanddiversification,butwealsoneedmoredetailedassessmentsofwhysomeapproachesindifferentcontextshaveadverseconsequencesorfail,suchasforreasonsoflackofcommercialviabilityorunsustainabledevelop-ment.Morespecifically,furtherresearchcouldexaminethetemporaldimensionsofproductdiversification,whichwerenotexploredinFig.1.Someprimarytourismproducts,forexample,mayemergeinadestinationonlyduringparticularseasons,suchaswhenclimaticconditionsaresuitableorduringreligiouscelebrations,andweneedtounderstandtheirrelationshipswithotherdestinationproducts.Itwouldalsobehelpfulforfutureworktoexploreinmoredepthhowtourismproductfeaturesandrelationshipsaremanifestedintheco-creationoftourismexperiencesthroughtheactivitiesofbothproducersandconsumers.Further,thereisscopeforresearchonhowtourismproductfeaturesandrelationshipsreflectthelegacyofenvironmentalandsocio-culturalattributes,market-basedprocesses,andalsopublicpolicydecisionsandmarketin-terventionsindifferentsituations.Further,thereisaneedforas-sessmentsoftherelationshipsbetweenchoicesandconstraintsintourismproductassemblyindestinations.Morebroadly,futurestudiescouldusefullytracehowtourismproductsindestinationsareassembledrelationallyasactors,ideas,materialandmarketforces,localattributes,techniques,aspirations,powerrelations,governanceandpracticesinteractbothwithinandbeyondthegeographicalscaleofthedestination.ReferencesAgarwal,S.,&Shaw,G.(2007).Re-engineeringcoastalresortsinMexico:somemanagementissues.InS.Agarwal,&G.Shaw(Eds.),Managingcoastaltourism.Aglobalperspective(pp.216e232).Clevedon:ChannelViewPublications.A.M.Benur,B.Bramwell/TourismManagement50(2015)213e224

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University,Libya,andpreviouslyhewasalecturerforfouryearsintheBusinessandEconomicsSchoolatthesameuniversity.Previouslyheworkedfor10yearsasamarineengineerfortheLibyanShippingFleetCompany.

BillBramwellisEmeritusProfessorofTourismatSheffieldHallamUniversity,UK(Email:w.m.bramwell@shu.ac.uk)andFoundingCo-EditorandcurrentCo-EditoroftheJour-nalofSustainableTourism.Hehaseditednumerousbooksontourismdevelopmentandtourismgovernance.Hisresearchinterestsincludetourismpolicyandplanning,tourismandenvironmentalpolitics,governanceintourism,tourismdevelopmentandsocietyinChina,andpoliticaleconomyandtourismdevelopment.