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尼古丁依赖与酒依赖共病机制的研究进展

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生圜蕴物筮塑丝盘查(坠i!』旦翌g望!避巡2盟!Q:12fi);丝!=i丝·32l·[综述]尼古丁依赖与酒依赖共病机制的研究进展孙洪强’王帆陆林(北京大学中国药物依赖性研究所,北京,100191)尼古丁依赖和酒依赖是导致发病及死亡的两大主要因素¨J,并且有较高的共患率拉1。虽然尼古丁和酒精较少有相似的药理学特性。例如,尼古丁有专门的受体并且可以提高警觉、促进肌肉收缩;而酒精可以作用于多种类型的受体、降低警戒以及使肌肉松弛。但是,尼古丁和酒精都可以产生耐受和依赖,有很多研究显示一种成瘾性物质的使用会增加其他成瘾性物质的使用风险;更有许多研究显示,吸烟和饮酒之间存在一些关联。本文主要阐述酒依赖和尼古丁依赖共病的可能机制。1流行病学研究1.1尼古丁依赖的流行病学吸烟与多种疾病的发生有关,可诱发多种癌症、心脑血管疾病、呼吸道疾病等,是造成早亡、病残的最大病因之一∞J。香烟里含有3000多种物质成分,尼古丁是主要的成瘾性物质,它使得人们持续使用香烟。世界卫生组织估计全球大约有1/3的成年人在吸烟。仅仅在美国,吸烟导致每年超过400000人死亡及损失500亿美元的医疗费用HJ。大多数成年人吸烟都是从青少年时期开始的b1。2000年美国入户调查数据显示,每天大约有5000名青年人在尝试吸烟,他们中大约有1/3—1/2的人逐渐发展为规律吸烟”J。开始吸烟的人在几年之内吸烟量逐渐增加,但是青少年成瘾发展较快帕J。当他们开始规律吸烟时,大约有1/4的青年人称有成瘾症状。使用青年大鼠的实验显示,在第一次接触尼古丁后就可观察到突触改变及神经适应性¨qJ。此外,通过自身给药及条件性位置偏爱模型显示,青年大鼠对尼古丁有较高的敏感性p叫0l。1.2酒依赖的流行病学酒在发挥其强大效应的同时也带来了许多危害,包括酒后犯罪、酒后驾车等社会问题以及酒依赖、酒精性肝硬化、胎儿酒精综合征等医学问题,而’通信作者:E—mail:sunhongqian90620@126.com万方数据所有这些危害当中以酒依赖最为严重。中国五地区饮酒情况及相关问题调查显示普通人群酒精所致精神障碍(不包括急性酒中毒)的总体患病率是5.1%,男性患病率为9.o%,女性患病率为0.2%¨1|,可见我国酒依赖患者较多,且男性患病率显著高于女性。1.3尼古丁依赖与酒依赖共病的流行病学在酒依赖人群中尼古丁依赖是一个重要的问题。大多数酒依赖者吸烟,而非酒依赖者中吸烟者很少,并且大多数酒依赖患者在饮酒后吸烟量显著增加¨引。例如,吸烟的酒依赖的患者往往死于与吸烟相关的疾病而不是与酒精相关的疾病…。几个关于酒依赖患者吸烟状况的调查发现,酒依赖与尼古丁依赖有很高的共患率。例如,2001—2002年美国对酒精及其相关因素进行的流行病学调查显示,最近一年内美国有3.8%的成年人酒依赖,12.8%的人尼古丁依赖,同时1.7%的人酒精和尼古丁双重依赖悼J。从数据可以看出尼古丁与酒依赖共患的比例很高。2尼古丁依赖和酒依赖共病的机制尼古丁依赖和酒依赖的共病机制还不清楚,目前认为是多种因素共同作用的结果。在酒依赖者中尼古丁依赖的比例非常高,此外吸烟量与饮酒量、酒依赖的严重程度成正相关。下面讨论酒与尼古丁依赖共病的可能机制。2.1共同的遗传学基础对物质成瘾的遗传学研究显示,遗传学因素大约占到50%。动物实验证实尼古丁和酒依赖共患存在共同的遗传基础。美国国立酒精滥用与酒精中毒研究所与美国国立药物滥用研究所的研究显示,通过遗传选择培育的先天喜爱饮酒的大鼠对尼古丁有较高的偏爱,同时在尼古丁点燃后更容易导致尼古丁的复吸¨31。同样通过遗传学实验显示,尼古丁依赖和酒依赖之间存在高度的遗传关联性,这也提示它们可能有共同的遗传易感性。通过全基因组扫描的方法可以鉴别酒精和尼古丁依赖的遗传连锁。·322·例如,LongJC等研究认为影响酒依赖的基因可能定位于第l、4、7和ll号染色体上¨4‘。2.2神经生物学基础中脑边缘多巴胺系统是成瘾的神经生物学基础【l5|。多巴胺神经元主要集中在中脑腹侧被盖区(VTA),它的投射区域有伏核(NAc)、前额皮质、海马、杏仁核等脑区【16J。这一通路是包括尼古丁、酒精及所有滥用药物奖赏共同的神经通路,它参与了物质成瘾的病理生理过程。酒精是精神活性物质,可以刺激VTA区引起多巴胺大量的释放,并增强其活性,从而产生奖赏效应¨7。181。同时中脑边缘多巴胺系统也被认为是尼古丁作用的关键部位【l引。尼古丁也是刺激多巴胺系神经元来增加细胞外的多巴胺浓度。Rose提出尼古丁和酒精对中脑边缘多巴胺通路具有正性强化作用ⅢJ。因此,中脑边缘系统可能是尼古丁依赖和酒依赖共病的作用位点之一。除多巴胺参与酒依赖与尼古丁依赖之外,还有其他的一些神经递质也参与了此过程,其中烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体(nAChR)可能是酒精和尼古丁相互作用的共同基础旧¨。2.2.1烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体(nAChRs)利用爪蟾卵母细胞[笠】、大鼠电生理实验心31及小鼠的行为学实验Ⅲo证实酒精可以调节尼古丁与nAChRs结合的比率,通常是通过增强受体的功能实现的。由于这些烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体可以增加多巴胺的释放,所以它可能参与了中脑边缘多巴胺通路的奖赏机制。目前已鉴别出】2种nAChRs受体亚单位(以一a10和p2一阴)∞。26I,通过不同的组合方式可以组成多种五聚体的配体门控型离子通道,这些通道分布于整个脑区。nAChRs受体通过与内源性乙酰胆碱或尼古丁结合而发挥不同的作用,并且不同的亚型的乙酰胆碱受体也发挥着不同的作用。在中脑内分布最广泛的亚型是含有科和胆的亚基,它们与尼古丁结合有较高的亲和力,而d一银环蛇毒素敏感的仪7亚基也形成相同的受体Ⅲ】。自主神经系统中nAChRs分为两种完全不同的种类:含有胡亚基的受体和含有异构的d3亚基受体以及同时有解和阱亚基的受体田】。不同亚型的受体结构及定位可以通过原位杂交等分子技术、免疫组化技术及影像学技术来鉴定汹】。0t4132受体和胡受体亚型在脑内分布最广,同时人们对尼古丁与酒精共依赖的研究也集中于这两种受体。爪蟾卵母细胞及小鼠脑细胞的体外培养实万方数据验证明酒精可以增强自然表达的a4132受体的功能同时抑制胡受体的功能旧1。a41j2型受体主要位于突触前神经末梢,可以调节多巴胺、GABA等神经递质的释放㈣J。因此多巴胺能系统在调节烟和/或酒引起愉悦反应中也起到了重要作用∞1-331。烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体位于VTA区的多巴胺神经元胞体上,可以直接兴奋这些神经元引起短时的改变。d7受体可以通过另一种方式间接的调节多巴胺的释放。卵受体可以刺激谷氨酸的释放,迸一步激活多巴胺神经元的NMDA受体,引起多巴胺的释放ⅢJ。动物实验证明同时给予尼古丁和酒精可以增强多巴胺的释放,此实验更加说明尼古丁与酒精存在共同的反应位点口5J。2.2.2神经递质问的作用酒精可以刺激5一羟色胺(5一HT)能系统,增加伏隔核中的细胞外5一HT浓度,引起冲动行为、攻击以及对酒精的反应性降低等m】。对酒精的低反应性是发展成为酒依赖的一个危险因素口71。长期使用尼古丁可以降低酒精的效应,这样就会增加饮酒量及促进酒依赖的形成。与不吸烟者相比,饮用相同剂量的酒精吸烟者较少发生中毒‘38I。人脑的影像学研究显示酒精滥用导致的神经适应性和神经毒性改变同样可由吸烟引起。当酒依赖者停止饮酒,我们可以观察到GABA.受体的数量随戒断时间的延长而逐渐增加。有证据表明增加GABA.受体的数量会导致严重的戒断症状,而吸烟可以减少GABA。受体的数量的增加,因此可以缓解酒精的戒断症状旧J。此外,酒精戒断时DA释放减少而尼古丁可以促进DA的释放。这些神经递质之间的协同和拮抗效应都对尼古丁和酒依赖共病的形成发挥着作用。尼古丁和酒精都是通过增加伏隔核多巴胺的释放㈣J以及它们对内源性阿片系统的作用Hu来发挥其强化作用的。同时尼古丁与酒精也存在拮抗效应,这样可能会加重或减轻负性作用。临床前的研究显示,酒精可以阻断尼古丁诱导的记忆增强【.21;另外有实验表明尼古丁可以减缓酒精戒断过程中NMDA受体介导的神经毒性作用旧J。虽然尼古丁对心血管的效应可能会增加酒精诱导的脑血管病变ⅢJ,但是尼古丁的神经保护机制可能会帮助减轻一部分酒精的神经毒性作用ⅢJ。2.3其他的因素除了遗传因素外,环境因素对尼古丁和酒依赖的形成也起着重要的作用。但是研究显示遗传是内在因素,对疾病的影响起主要作用。此外,青少年吸生垦麴塑筮塑堂盘查(鱼i!』望型g旦!匹!i21Q!!:!竺(12;=!丝·323·烟可以预测在今后的生活中发生酒精相关问题的概率mo。Duncan等的研究显示,在不饮酒的吸烟者中,当吸烟量达到一定水平或随着吸烟量的增加将预示着饮酒事件的发生;在不吸烟的饮酒者中,饮酒量的增加也预示着今后吸烟行为的发生【47。。可以看出尼古丁依赖与酒依赖共患是有多种因素共同作用下发生的。4参考文献[1]Hurt[2]Falk3总结虽然已有很多的研究表明吸烟与饮酒之间存在着很大的关联性,但是由于尼古丁依赖与酒依赖的发病机制仍不清楚,因此仍需要进一步的研究。结合遗传学、功能影像学和分子生物学来阐述尼古丁与酒依赖共患的机制。RD,OffordKP,CroghanIT,eta1.Mortalityfollowinginpatientaddictionstreatment.Roleoftobaccoincommunity—basedcohort[J].JAMA,1996,275(14):1097—1103DE,YiHY,Hiller—SturmhofelS.Anepidemiologicanalysisofco—occurringalcoholandtobaccoanddisorders:findingsfromtheNationalEpidemiologicSurvey171AlcoholandRelatedConditions[J].AlcoholResHealth,2006,29:162—[3]ShieldsPG,LermanC,AudrainJ,eta1.DopamineD4receptorsandtheriskofcigarettesmokinginAfrican—AmericansandPrey,1998,7(6):453—458Caucasians[J].CancerEpidemiolBiomarkers[4]Epping~JordanMP,WatkinsNature,1998,393:76—79SS,KoobGF,eta1.Dramaticdecreasesinbrainrewardfunctionduringnicotinewithdrawal[J].[5]HenningfieldJE,Moolchan12(Sup):i14一i24ET,ZellerM.Regulatorystrategiestoreducetobaccoaddictioninyouth[J].TobControl,2003,[6]BenowitzNL.Nicotine[J].Prim[7]Jones[8]MansvelderCare,1999,26:611—631S,BonciA.Synapticplasticityanddrugaddiction[J].CurtOpinPharmacol,2000,5:20—25toHD,McgeheeDS.Long—termpotentiationofexcitatoryinputsbrainrewardareasbynicotine[J].Neuron,infemale2000,27:349—357[9]LevinED,Rezvani[10]VastolaBJ,Douglas111213AH,MontoyaD,eta1.Adolesentonsetnicotineself—administrationmodeledrats[J].Psyehopharmacology(Bed),2003,169:141~149LA,VarlinskayaEl,eta1.Nicotine—inducedconditioned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作者:作者单位:刊名:英文刊名:年,卷(期):

, 孙洪强, 王帆, 陆林

北京大学中国药物依赖性研究所,北京,100191中国药物依赖性杂志

CHINESE JOURNAL OF DRUG DEPENDENCE2010,19(5)

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3.Riala K;Hakko H;Isohanni M Teenage smoking and substance use as predictors of severe alcoholproblems in late adolescence and in young adulthood 2004

4.Falk DE.Yi HY.Hiller-Sturmhofel S An epidemiologic analysis of co-occurring alcohol and tobaccouse and disorders:findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions2006

5.Tizabi Y;Al-Namaeh M;Manaye KF Protective effects of nicotine on ethanol-induced toxicity incultured cerebellar granule cells[外文期刊] 2003

6.Shields PG.Lerman C.Audrain J Dopamine D4 receptors and the risk of cigarette smoking in African-Americans and Caucasians 1998(6)

7.Aberle NS 2nd;Privratsky JR;Burd L Combined acetaldehyde and nicotine exposure depresses cardiaccontraction in ventricularmyocytes:prevention by folic acid[外文期刊] 2003

8.Epping-Jordan MP.Watkins SS.Koob GF Dramatic decreases in brain reward function during nicotinewithdrawal 1998

9.Levin ED;Rezvani AH;Montoya D Adolesentonset nicotine self-administration modeled in female rats2003

10.Henningfield JE.Moolchan ET.Zeller M Regulatory strategies to reduce tobacco addiction in youth2003(Sup)

11.Mansvelder HD;Mcgehee DS Long-term potentiation of excitatory inputs to brain reward areas bynicotine[外文期刊] 2000(2)12.Benowitz NL Nicotine 1999

13.Jones S;Bonci A Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction 200014.Jones S.Bonci A Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction 200015.Benowitz NL Nicotine[外文期刊] 1999

16.Mansvelder HD.Mcgehee DS Long-term potentiation of excitatory inputs to brain reward areas bynicotine 2000

17.Henningfield JE;Moolchan ET;Zeller M Regulatory strategies to reduce tobacco addiction in youth2003(Sup)

18.Levin ED.Rezvani AH.Montoya D Adolesentonset nicotine self-administration modeled in female rats

2003

19.Epping-Jordan MP;Watkins SS;Koob GF Dramatic decreases in brain reward function during nicotinewithdrawal 1998

20.Vastola BJ.Douglas LA.Varlinskaya EI Nicotine-induced conditioned place preference in adolescentand rats 2002

21.Prendergast MA;Harris BR;Mayer S Chronic,but not acute,nicotine exposure attenuates ethanolwithdrawal-induced hippocampal damage in vitro 2000

22.苏中华.郝伟.谌红献.全国五地区第二次饮酒情况调查协作组 中国五地区饮酒情况及相关问题调查Ⅲ.普通人群的饮酒相关问题 2003(8)

23.Levin ED Nicotinic systems and cognitive function 1992

24.Bien TH.Burge R Smoking and drinking:a review of the literature 1990

25.Gianoulakis C Endogenous opioids and addiction to alcohol and other drugs of abuse[外文期刊]2004(1)

26.Le AD.Li Z.Funk D Increased vulnerability to nicotine self-administration and relapse in alcohol-naive offspring of rats selectively bred for high alcohol intake 2006

27.Soderpalm B;Ericson M;Olausson P Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating andreinforcing properties of ethanol[外文期刊] 2000(1/2)

28.Long JC.Knowler WC.Hanson RL Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence on chromosomes 4and 11 from an auto some-wide scan in an American Indian population 1998

29.Staley JK;Gottschalk C;Petrakis IL Cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid type A-benzodiazepinereceptors in recovery from alcohol dependence:relationship to features of alcohol dependence andcigarette smoking[外文期刊] 2005(8)

30.Tupala E.Tiihonen J Dopamine and alcoholism:neurobiological basis of ethanol abuse 2004(8)31.Madden PA;Heath AC;Starmer GA Alcohol sensitivity and smoking history in men and women[外文期刊]1995

32.Zhang TA.Maldve RE.Morriset t RA Coincident signaling in mesolimbic structures underlying alcoholreinforcement 2006(8)

33.Schuckit MA;Smith TL Changes over time in the self-reported level of response to alcohol[外文期刊] 2004(5)

34.Volkow ND.Wang GJ.Begleiter H High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members ofalcoholic families:possible protective factors 2006(9)

35.Barr CS;Newman TP;Becker ML Serotonin transporter gene variation is associated wit h alcoholsensitivity in rhesus macaques exposed to early-life stress[外文期刊] 2003(05)

36.Kalivas PU.Volkow ND The neural basis of addiction:a pathology of motivation and choice 200537.Tizabi Y;Copeland RL Jr;Louis VA Effects of combined systemic alcohol and central nicotineadministration into ventral tegmental area on dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens 2002(03)38.Pontieri FE.Tanda G.Orzi F Effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens and similarity to thoseof addictive drugs 1996(6588)

39.Wonnacott S;Sidhpura N;Balfour DJ Nicotine:from molecular mechanisms to behaviour[外文期刊]2005(01)

40.Rose JE.Behm FM.West man EC PET studies of the influences of nicotine on neural systems incigarette smokers 2003

41.Ericson M;Blomqvist O;Engel JA Voluntary ethanol intake in the rat and the associated accumbaldopamine overflow are blocked by ventral tegmental mecamylamine[外文期刊] 1998(03)

42.Larsson A.Engel JA Neurochemical and behavioral studies on ethanol and nicotine interactions 200443.Soderpalm B;Ericson M;Olausson P Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating andreinforcing properties of ethanol[外文期刊] 2000(1-2)

44.Borghese CM.Wang L.Bleck V Mutation in neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed inXenopus oocytes blocks ethanol action 2003(3)

45.Zoli M;Moretti M;Zanardi A Identification of the nicotinic receptor subtypes expressed ondopaminergic terminals in the rat striatum[外文期刊] 2002(20)

46.Zuo Y.Nagata K.Yeh JZ Single-channel analyses of ethanol modulation of neuronal nicotinicacetylcholine receptors 2004(5)

47.Lu Y;Grady S;Marks MJ Pharmacological characterization of nicotinic receptor-stimulated GABArelease from mouse brain synaptosomes 1998(02)

48.Butt CM.King NM.Stitzel JA Interaction of the nicotinic cholinergic system with ethanolwithdrawal 2004(2)

49.Davis TJ;de Fiebre CM Alcohol's actions on neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 2006(03)50.Gotti C.Zoli M.Clementi F Brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors:native subtypes and theirrelevance 2006(9)

51.Horti AG;Villemagne VL The quest for Eldorado:development of radioligands for in vivo imaging ofnicotinic acetylcholine receptors in human brain[外文期刊] 2006(30)

52.Leonard S.Bertrand D Neuronal nicotinic receptors:from structure to function 2001(3)

53.Dani JA Overview of nicotinic receptors and their roles in the central nervous system[外文期刊]2001(03)

.Dani JA Overview of nicotinic receptors and their roles in the central nervous system 2001(3)55.Leonard S;Bertrand D Neuronal nicotinic receptors:from structure to function 2001(03)

56.Horti AG.Villemagne VL The quest for Eldorado:development of radioligands for in vivo imaging ofnicotinic acetylcholine receptors in human brain 2006(30)

57.Gotti C;Zoli M;Clementi F Brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors:native subtypes and theirrelevance[外文期刊] 2006(09)

58.Davis TJ.de Fiebre CM Alcohol's actions on neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 2006(3)59.Butt CM;King NM;Stitzel JA Interaction of the nicotinic cholinergic system with ethanolwithdrawal[外文期刊] 2004(02)

60.Lu Y.Grady S.Marks MJ Pharmacological characterization of nicotinic receptor-stimulated GABArelease from mouse brain synaptosomes 1998(2)

61.Zuo Y;Nagata K;Yeh JZ Single-channel analyses of ethanol modulation of neuronal nicotinicacetylcholine receptors[外文期刊] 2004(05)

62.Zoli M.Moretti M.Zanardi A Identification of the nicotinic receptor subtypes expressed ondopaminergic terminals in the rat striatum 2002(20)

63.Borghese CM;Wang L;Bleck V Mutation in neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed inXenopus oocytes blocks ethanol action[外文期刊] 2003(03)

.Soderpalm B.Ericson M.Olausson P Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating andreinforcing properties of ethanol 2000(1-2)

65.Shields PG;Lerman C;Audrain J Dopamine D4 receptors and the risk of cigarette smoking in African-Americans and Caucasians 1998(06)

66.Ericson M.Blomqvist O.Engel JA Voluntary ethanol intake in the rat and the associated accumbaldopamine overflow are blocked by ventral tegmental mecamylamine 1998(3)

67.Falk DE;Yi HY;Hiller-Sturmhofel S An epidemiologic analysis of co-occurring alcohol and tobaccouse and disorders:findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions2006

68.Wonnacott S.Sidhpura N.Balfour DJ Nicotine:from molecular mechanisms to behaviour 2005(1)69.Larsson A;Engel JA Neurochemical and behavioral studies on ethanol and nicotine interactions[外文期刊] 2004(8)

70.Tizabi Y.Copeland RL Jr.Louis VA Effects of combined systemic alcohol and central nicotineadministration into ventral tegmental area on dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens 2002(3)71.Rose JE;Behm FM;West man EC PET studies of the influences of nicotine on neural systems incigarette smokers[外文期刊] 2003(2)

72.Barr CS.Newman TP.Becker ML Serotonin transporter gene variation is associated wit h alcoholsensitivity in rhesus macaques exposed to early-life stress 2003(5)

73.Pontieri FE;Tanda G;Orzi F Effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens and similarity to thoseof addictive drugs[外文期刊] 1996(6588)

74.Schuckit MA.Smith TL Changes over time in the self-reported level of response to alcohol 200475.Kalivas PU;Volkow ND The neural basis of addiction:a pathology of motivation and choice[外文期刊]2005

76.Madden PA.Heath AC.Starmer GA Alcohol sensitivity and smoking history in men and women 199577.Volkow ND;Wang GJ;Begleiter H High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members ofalcoholic families:possible protective factors[外文期刊] 2006(09)

78.Staley JK.Gottschalk C.Petrakis IL Cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid type A-benzodiazepinereceptors in recovery from alcohol dependence:relationship to features of alcohol dependence andcigarette smoking 2005

79.Zhang TA;Maldve RE;Morriset t RA Coincident signaling in mesolimbic structures underlying alcoholreinforcement[外文期刊] 2006(08)

80.Soderpalm B.Ericson M.Olausson P Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating and

reinforcing properties of ethanol 2000

81.Tupala E;Tiihonen J Dopamine and alcoholism:neurobiological basis of ethanol abuse[外文期刊]2004(08)

82.Gianoulakis C Endogenous opioids and addiction to alcohol and other drugs of abuse 2004

83.Long JC;Knowler WC;Hanson RL Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence on chromosomes 4and 11 from an auto some-wide scan in an American Indian population[外文期刊] 199884.Levin ED Nicotinic systems and cognitive function 1992

85.Le AD;Li Z;Funk D Increased vulnerability to nicotine self-administration and relapse in alcohol-naive offspring of rats selectively bred for high alcohol intake[外文期刊] 2006(6)

86.Prendergast MA.Harris BR.Mayer S Chronic,but not acute,nicotine exposure attenuates ethanolwithdrawal-induced hippocampal damage in vitro 2000

87.Bien TH;Burge R Smoking and drinking:a review of the literature 1990

88.Aberle NS 2nd.Privratsky JR.Burd L Combined acetaldehyde and nicotine exposure depresses cardiaccontraction in ventricularmyocytes:prevention by folic acid 2003

.苏中华;郝伟;谌红献 中国五地区饮酒情况及相关问题调查[期刊论文]-中国心理卫生杂志 2003(08)90.Tizabi Y.Al-Namaeh M.Manaye KF Protective effects of nicotine on ethanol-induced toxicity incultured cerebellar granule cells 2003

91.Vastola BJ;Douglas LA;Varlinskaya EI Nicotine-induced conditioned place preference in adolescentand rats[外文期刊] 2002

92.Riala K.Hakko H.Isohanni M Teenage smoking and substance use as predictors of severe alcoholproblems in late adolescence and in young adulthood 2004

93.Hurt RD;Offord KP;Croghan IT Mortality following inpatient addictions treatment.Role of tobaccouse in a community-based cohort[外文期刊] 1996(14)

94.Duncan SC.Duncan TE.Hop s H Progressions of alcohol,cigarette,and marijuana use in adolescence1998

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